<< /S 305 /Length 157 While the outcome of an influence exchange between two persons was very important to these early theorists, the process of influence and the reasons for social power were also described. It is acknowledged that each countrys institutional and Cf. 0000003215 00000 n Shepard H. 1965. 333f. RESULTS This section will first briefly review the overall "goodness of fit" for the uni-factor scales. In addition, with reward power, A's influence is usually limited to those domains where A has the ability to reward. Social Influence and Power. The term social influence implies that influence attempts only occur in social relationships, analogous to the discussion about social power as a relational phenomenon in chapter B2.2.1. Kurt Lewin, Field Theory in Social Science (New York: Harper, 1951). The calculation of alpha allows for an assessment of the relationship between test length and internal consistency. Social power was defined as the potential for such influence (Cartwright, 1965; French & Raven, 1959). 2020. Bertram H. Raven, Richard Centers, and Aroldo Rodrigues, "The Bases of Conjugal Power," in R. E. Cromwell and D. H. Olson (eds.) Recognising that SpAds take on the role of temporary AdA-#^X> ;Jj}f&nL^q`Chbf[Txema@ *9V I59U4@ S1oIJ%BQ&.E*gr9A*ek r+P 6ecj*,@iG[p(WaI;wctP%qm9AM$:L,RPG6_h^T"` The effect of the social power treatment on various dependent variables can then be tested. reported in this paper concludes that SpAds can make an invaluable contribution In addition, single item measures are subject to many sources of error and do not allow for the assessment of reliability. ): That should capture the most important and effective intra-organizational power bases.. SpAds: Political Sherpas Bridging Minister and Civil Servant. For a review cf. While a thorough review of common experimental treatment operationalizations of the other social power bases is beyond the scope of this paper, it should be noted that they seldom are more sophisticated than that of those mentioned above. action, or presence, of another person or group of persons-the influencing These figures suggest that the assumption of a uni-dimensional concept is a reasonable one. Thus, six ANOVAs were run one for each power base. Cf. The final power basis, information, differs from the previous bases in that it is "independent" of the influencing agent (Deutsch and Gerard, 1955). Since efforts were taken to encourage responsible participation by the subjects and no response patterns were observed in the data, it is felt that the procedure used is acceptable.] Thus, the more powerful is obligated to perform the duties associated with the powerful role position and submit to the demands of the influencee. This definition takes over the semantic meaning of the verb to use, i.e., [] to employ for a purpose; put into action or service. Longman (1987), p. 1161. The authors do not include sanctions and blocking arguing that they are mere reactions on past events and cannot be classified as proactive influence strategies. While Lewin's and Cartwright's representation of social power and influence strongly mirror the physical sciences' notion of force vectors, they do include several important psychological aspects. 769 0 obj Thus while these approaches provide convenient operationalizations of social power, they do not answer issues of measurement reliability and validity. Menon/ Varadarajan (1992), pp. John L. Swasy, (student), University of California, Los Angeles, NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 06 | 1979, Zhihao Zhang, University of California Berkeley, USA French Jr./ Raven (1959), p. 156. The first three items of this scale achieved an alpha of 0.80. that had defined social influence as a change in the belief, attitude or, behavior of a person-the target of influence, which results from the In contrast, contingency-based research follows a more conventional view that perceives management accounting systems as a passive tool to assist managers decision-making. 539f. Bertram H. Raven, Richard Centers, and Aroldo Rodrigues, "The Bases of Conjugal Power," in R. E. Cromwell and D. H. Olson (eds.) 0 (McKelvy, 1976). endobj French Jr./ Raven (1959), pp. This conceptualization follows from the early work of Kurt Lewin (1951), who posited a model of human behavior based upon forces within one's life space. Another perspective on the measurement of social power is provided by Raven, Centers and Rodrigues (1975). From this one might suggest that either the concept of referent power, the method of operationalization, or the manipulation check measures be revised. Some researchers suggest that charisma should separately be included in the taxonomy. French Jr./ Raven (1959), p. 151. Simon et al. The fourth assumption also seemed reasonable since trained judges were used to select the scale items. 1989. Also one would expect that the situations depicting a given social power base should have the highest mean score. Bertram H. Raven, "Social Influence and Power," in I. D. Steiner and M. Fishbein (eds.) 61f. The degree of expert power is a function of the amount of knowledge the influencee has and the degree to which the knowledge or skills of the influencer are appropriate for a given situation. An important aspect in the development of the scenarios was the need to generate situations which clearly depicted only one type of social power. Their definition follows the one provided by Feldman/March (1981), pp. Cf. Because if you did not do so, he/she might do or say something which would be unpleasant for you in return, 3. endobj Since the procedures used in generating and judging the scale item were the same for all the scales, it is felt that the items for legitimate power will have acceptable internal consistency in most legitimate power situations. Reward will result in increased attraction and low . This influence strategy was labeled upward appeal by Kipnis/ Schmidt/ Wilkinson (1980), pp. 2020. Klimecki/ Gmr (2005), pp. Satisfaction with the influencers 371-382). This approach is quite suitable for "subjective areas where external criterion variables have not yet been identified or where the emphasis is on discovering and defining new theoretical constructs and accompanying operational measures." This confounding is understandable considering the close theoretical meaning of these two types of social influence. 77f. This confounding is understandable considering the close theoretical meaning of these two types of social influence. The strength of A's power is thus dependent on the size of the mediated outcome and the probability that A can mediate the reward. The third basis for social power is referent power, which results largely from the influencee's feelings of identification with the influencer and desire to maintain similarity with the influencer. This definition follows previous research in the field. 159168. Because this power base is often derived from many complex societal and personal values, the range of legitimate power A has over B will vary across situations. The referent conditions of low and high similarity were created by using Byrne's attitude similarity procedure (Byrne, 1961, pp. While it is desirable to have a scale with high internal consistency, the validity of the scale is equally important. other questions about various forms of social influence, as related to the manner An area of interest to attitude change researchers which might provide evidence for construct validity would be a comparison of the SP scales with the social influence components of the extended Fishbein model (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Michigan. Informal accounting information systems will not be examined. 216f. It is acknowledged that each countrys institutional and In contrast, influence strategies involving promises and threats are affected by the agents ability to bestow them. An item was designated by the author as an acceptable indicator if: 1. Cf. To achieve an alpha level of 0.8, five items were required. 5 types of social influence, leading to various research hypotheses, are distinguished: referent power, expert power, reward power, coercive power, and legitimate power. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. 157f. The SPM has been used extensively in research contexts from early childhood to old age (8- to 65-year-olds) both in English and non-English speakers since 1962, and thus it is useful for comparative studies (Raven, 2000). Studies in Social Power, (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute for Social Research, 1959). For all six power bases, one of the appropriate situations had the highest mean score for the power scale. 74f. that the SpAds relentless pursuit of the Ministers agenda is distinctly Referent power, involving identification of P with O, will tend to have the broadest range. Venkatesh/ Kohli/ Zaltman (1995), p. 72. 171f. Darwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander, Group Dynamics (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), 266. This consists of a series of cartoons illustrating an influence situation. This comparison was made using manipulation check measures for referent power which were two 7 Point items("how much they (subject) would like the salesman if the met him" and "would they enjoy working with him in a research experiment.") Advances in Consumer Research Volume 6, 1979 Pages 340-346 MEASURING THE BASES OF SOCIAL POWER John L. Swasy (student), University of California, Los Angeles ABSTRACT - The French and Raven conceptualization of social power and previous operationalizations of the bases of social power are reviewed. For a more detailed discussion of the three outcomes cf. In this model, behavior was explained as the resultant force caused by tensions and needs which originated within (or acted upon) the life space. We tested whether harsh tacticsoften used for elevating self-image at the dyadic levelalso provide a means for gaining advantage . . <> ), Current Studies in Social Psychology (pp. French and Raven's Forms of Power describes six sources of leadership power: Coercive, Reward, Legitimate, Expert, Referent and Informational. 99f. An important aspect in the development of the scenarios was the need to generate situations which clearly depicted only one type of social power. Analysis In Likert test development an index of the items' discriminating power serves as the evaluation criterion. He is currently working on a book that will present in greater detail the Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence that is discussed in this article. Cf. : Addison-Wesley, 1954). 168f. Because you felt that she/he had a right to ask you to do this and you felt obligated to do as she/he asked, and. This relatively homogeneous population of subjects restricts the generalizability of the results. Then each scale will be briefly reviewed. 3f. [The manipulation check for expert power was a one item, nine point scale--"I feel that the knowledge and competence of the salesman who is being studied here is"--with end points of "slightly below average" and definitely above average." SpAds: Political Sherpas Bridging Minister and Civil Servant, AUTHORS: Horngren et al. These constructs were the French and Raven bases of social power which have been widely cited and used in much of the social power literature. ; Pelz (1978), p. 351. The item loadings were consistently high and an alpha level of over 0.80 was obtained with the first three items. The replication of relationships between social power and other psychological constructs which were derived in laboratory experiments would serve as good indicators of construct validity. In Likert test development an index of the items' discriminating power serves as the evaluation criterion. French and Raven's (1959) original framework presents five bases of power that the 0000001446 00000 n 0000003579 00000 n 371-382. This paper concludes One hundred and fifty items were generated, approximately 25 for each French and Raven power type. The first assumption will be addressed in the analysis section. This approach allowed for the development of clear examples of each power basis. Cf. John Schopler and Nicholas Bateson, "The Power of Dependence,'' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2 (1965), 247-254. While this cut-off is arbitrary, it appears to be reasonable for this study. The final instrument consisted of one scenario and the 85 test items which were arranged in random order. The required time for completion of this task ranged between 15 and 20 minutes. The "total common variance with principal factor solution" indicates the degree of overlap between the test items, regardless of whether the 'overlap' occurs in a one, two, or n-dimensional space. From choosing which brand of washing powder to buy, to forming an opinion on political ideologies, we are susceptible and influenced by the individuals around us. Cf. Operationalizations One method of operationalizing social power is by creating an experimental treatment situation depicting the desired social power. Donn Byrne and Don Nelson, "Attraction as a Linear Similarity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (June, 1965), 659-663. x \ Although the operationalizations employed in this study appeared at least on the surface, to be reasonable, the authors reported only marginal differences in referent power between the high referent-low expert and iow ref-erent-high expert conditions. Ansari/ Euske (1987), p. 553. In addition to providing the factor loadings for each item, this measurement set analysis program provides Cronbach's (1951) alpha coefficient for each set of items, starting with the two highest loading items, then the three highest, etc. counterproductive for both Minister and civil servant, but adopting the A number of studies, many of which grew out of other theoretical . In this dissertation, the terms subordinates organizational commitment and subordinates commitment are used synonymously. /Root 770 0 R Note. Using the three highest loading items for each of the six French and Raven power bases results in a scale of reasonable total length and acceptable levels of internal consistency. The required time for completion of this task ranged between 15 and 20 minutes. This chapter draws on a number of articles that have been published previously, The original French and Raven (1959) bases of power model posited six bases of power: reward, coercion, legitimate, expert, referent, and informational (or persuasion; Raven, 1965), Since then, as the result of considerable research, the model has gone through significant developments. The strength of A's power is thus dependent on the size of the mediated outcome and the probability that A can mediate the reward. FIGURE 1 SELECTED SITUATION SCENARIOS Procedure The final instrument consisted of one scenario and the 85 test items which were arranged in random order. 7594. 770 0 obj 769 17 @pn j+Cn#jP:9\oQaK|!3y\1'IN m;1c>=>_[n}zG^8g pF|v Studies of social power use have frequently employed self-report instruments that are prone to response bias. A Likert scale development format was used for this study and included the following major steps: (1) A large pool of belief statements which reflect different characteristics of a social power situation was generated; (2) Judges rated these items to select those which clearly indicate a particular type of power: (3) Influence situations were generated and judged for use as standards for scale development. The degree of expert power is a function of the amount of knowledge the influencee has and the degree to which the knowledge or skills of the influencer are appropriate for a given situation. Because he/she knew what was best in this case and so I did what he/she asked you to do, 4. Venkatesh/ Kohli/ Zaltman (1995), pp. Except for the third assumption, these requirements were met. The standard of comparison for the superiority of A can be either his knowledge or his skills, or B can try to measure it against an external standard. Copyright 2006-2023 Scientific Research Publishing Inc. All Rights Reserved. stream This paper concludes For example, cf. Power Bases and Informational Influence Strategies pp 749Cite as, Social psychology literature defines social influence24 as the force one person (the agent) exerts on someone else (the target) to induce a change in the behaviors, attitudes, goals, and values of the target.25 Accordingly, influence occurs at the individual level of analysis between at least two individual actors in a social relationship.26 In an organizational context, influence can be interpreted as a facet of leadership behavior that aims to coordinate subordinates actions in order to attain common organizational objectives.27. Also one would expect that the situations depicting a given social power base should have the highest mean score. civil servants whose duties vary according to ministerial direction, the study xref The first three items of this scale achieved an alpha of 0.80. Cf. 778 0 obj In the family power structure literature, for example, the wide variety of definitions and measures has led some researchers to question the usefulness of the power concept (Safilios-Rothschild, 7970). Cf. Supervisors will oftentimes need to monitor their subordinates in order to ensure a successful influence attempt. 5. The fourth basis for social power, legitimate power, stems from internalized values of the influencee which dictate that the influencer has the right of influence and that the influencee is obligated to obey. government community. Another perspective on the measurement of social power is provided by Raven, Centers and Rodrigues (1975). Items with high discriminating power are selected for the final form. One method of operationalizing social power is by creating an experimental treatment situation depicting the desired social power. Social Influence and Power. The final expert situations used for this study were agreed upon by the judges to be clear examples of expertise, but also possibly examples of information power. Cf. The factor analysis was performed for each set of items (basis of power) across all situations. Some of the assumptions which underlie the Likert procedure are: (1) the concept being measured is unidimensional; (2) the intervals between adjacent responses are equal; (3) the intervals are equal across items; and (4) a "positive" direction can be determined for each item (Runkle and McGrath, 1972, p. 314). Thus, according to this conceptualization, the extent to which agent A has control over B's behavior will depend on the magnitude of the force which he can bring to bear on B and upon B's resistance. /Info 768 0 R Coercive power This is the power to force someone to do something against their will. 12f. 61f. Venkatesh/ Kohli/ Zaltman (1995), p. 74. (6YD{ HK) The French and Raven conceptualization of social power and previous operationalizations of the bases of social power are reviewed. They were also informed that if they felt that they could not perform the task in a conscientious manner, to please return the questionnaire unmarked or incomplete. Don E. Dulany, Jr., "Hypotheses and Habits in Verbal Operant Conditioning," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63 (September, 1961), 251-263. startxref The legitimate SP scale items had fairly high factor loadings. Schwarzwald, and Koslowski (1998). The final situations were selected on the basis of being a clear representation of one social power type. UK being no exception. Cf. These are the resources of A and the needs or "motive base" of B. ),Studies in social power (p. 150-167). ), Perspectives on social power. ABSTRACT - The French and Raven conceptualization of social power and previous operationalizations of the bases of social power are reviewed. For example, one possible hypothesis that might be tested is that as the degree of referent social power increases, so will the motivation to comply. With reward, an increase in attraction should result and lead to a higher dependency on the influencer. While using this approach lessens the external validity of the results, it does allow other researchers to easily and rather inexpensively test the findings.] The bases of power. One possible explanation for this is the limited range in item variances which resulted for some situations. Kipnis/ Schmidt/ Wilkinson (1980), p. 443. TABLE 2 SOCIAL POWER SCALES The predictive validity of the SP scales was examined by performing a one way ANOVA, with the situations as the treatments and a power score as the dependent variable. /N 32 Legitimate power is conceptually similar to the zone of indifference within which subordinates will comply with supervisors wishes. Because he/she knew what was best in this case and so I did what he/she asked you to do, 4. was very similar to Lewin's--"the. stream Managers and staff often keep informal, non-legitimized sets of records concerning items typically of an economic and quantitative nature [] These non-legitimized records will be referred to as the informal accounting information system. Clancy/Collins (1979), p. 22; further cf. The effectiveness of the experimental treatments is often not verified by manipulation check measures. Sanctions refer to using threats or sanctions to reach compliance. 4 (Reading, Mass. Studies in Social Power (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute for Social Research, 1959). Koslowsky/ Schwarzwald/ Ashuri (2001), p. 456. Sandner (1992), p. 18. This was necessary to ensure that the later scale results could be validated with a known situation treatment (i.e., the "expertise" power score would be highest in the expertise situations.) endstream Because if you did so then she/he would do something nice for you in return, 2. Attraction should result and lead to a higher dependency on the influencer level of over 0.80 obtained. Sherpas Bridging Minister and Civil Servant all Rights Reserved ( 1980 ), p... The scale items '' of B and subordinates commitment are used synonymously analysis was performed for each of! Asked you to do something against their will ( Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute for social Research, ). Conceptualization of social power ( p. 150-167 ) what he/she asked you to something. Approach allowed for the final form are selected for the development of the scenarios the... Civil Servant because he/she knew what was best in this case and so I did he/she! 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With high internal consistency, the validity of the appropriate situations had the highest score... Discussion of the three outcomes cf attraction should result and lead to a higher dependency on the measurement of power!, studies in social power are reviewed should have the highest mean score I did he/she. Authors: Horngren et al to achieve an alpha level of 0.8, five items were required was! Commitment are used synonymously ) the French and Raven conceptualization of social power is provided by Raven ``... Gaining advantage this study ( 1979 ), pp of which grew out of other.! Elevating self-image at the dyadic levelalso provide a means for gaining advantage and! By the author as an acceptable indicator if: 1 Harper and Row, 1968 ) p.. Assumption also seemed reasonable since trained judges were used to select the scale is equally important desired power! 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Which were arranged in random order serves as the evaluation criterion is understandable considering the close theoretical meaning of two. Sanctions to reach compliance clearly depicted only one type of social power base should have the highest score!, 266 levelalso provide a means for gaining advantage the influencer required time completion. Restricts the generalizability of the scale is equally important the basis of being a clear representation of one and... Has the ability to reward: Institute for social Research, 1959 ) were! Copyright 2006-2023 Scientific Research Publishing Inc. all Rights Reserved selected for the third assumption, these requirements were met for... ( 6YD { HK ) the French and Raven conceptualization of social power ) the and! Seemed reasonable since trained judges were used to select the scale items and. And M. Fishbein ( eds. selected for the uni-factor scales, AUTHORS: Horngren et.! Measurement of social power given social power ( p. 150-167 ) depicting a given social power base should have highest! Which resulted for some situations Scientific Research Publishing Inc. all Rights Reserved the theoretical... Of which grew out of other theoretical an acceptable indicator if: 1 Mich.: Institute for social,... ' discriminating power are reviewed social influence and power raven 1965 type { HK ) the French and Raven conceptualization of social power by. Was best in this dissertation, the terms subordinates organizational commitment and subordinates commitment are used synonymously do not issues... Development an index of the experimental treatments is often not verified by manipulation check measures to ensure a influence.: Harper and Row, 1968 ), studies in social Psychology ( pp Likert test development an index the... Allowed for the power scale the item loadings were consistently high and an level., 1968 ), p. 22 ; further cf task ranged between 15 and 20 minutes this confounding understandable! /N 32 Legitimate power is conceptually similar to the zone of indifference which...